Introduction

Belief in vampires has existed since the beginning of human history, often appearing in many different cultures concurrently. Each culture’s conception of the vampire has been unique. For example, one type of Indian vampire feeds on the livers of its victims, while a form of Japanese vampire subsists by consuming infants (Bunson, p. 138). As many other legendary creatures faded into obscurity, the vampire managed to retain its grasp on the human psyche. Vampires allow us to explore darker, mostly hidden aspects of ourselves. In the words of Anne Rice’s vampire Lestat,

if [the vampire] wields any lovely power upon the minds of men, it is only because the human imagination is a secret place of primitive memories and unconfessed desires. The mind of each man is a Savage Garden . . . in which all manner of creatures rise and fall, and anthems are sung and things imagined that must finally be condemned and disavowed. (Vampire Lestat, p. 465)

It is because of their resilient, elemental nature that vampires demand to be explored. By sifting through the ebb and flow of the genre, we begin to see the scope and form of the impact that changes in human cultures have on art. In addition, we also become aware of the manner in which art has gently nudged humanity over the course of thousands of years.

Recent decades have witnessed dramatic alterations in the concept of the vampire. However, this is not a unique development. Vampire lore has always been remarkably adaptable, which has allowed the concept of the vampire to survive times of war, plague and religious crusade. Moreover, it has often been in these darkest moments that the human connection to vampires has thrived the most. Perhaps this is because, as Margaret L. Carter contends, "superstition is a symbolic activity, in which individuals of the same group mark one another as different" (Gordon & Hollinger, p. 27). The superstitious parameter of humanity’s conception of the vampire meshes well with the most disturbing elements of these chaotic events. As the human race endeavors to brand others as deviant, it continues the eternal lives of the vampires themselves.

For the majority of their history, the role that vampires have played has been remarkably consistent across cultures. Frequently, the vampire served as a means to explain people and situations that did not comply with social expectations. In Romania, for example, women who resisted performing traditional duties, such as caring for the family or tending crops, were thought to be living vampires (Klingman, p. 21). Likewise, vampires were also blamed for the spread of the plague throughout Europe. When greeted with disturbing, unexplainable phenomena, it was easier to blame events on vampires than to live with the unknown.

For thousands of years, vampires were believed to be real. This began to change in the nineteenth century. The first acknowledged piece of vampire literature was published in 1819 (Heldreth & Pharr, p. 9). The Vampyre was particularly significant because it marked a change the way that the vampire acted as a social commentary. Instead of focusing on an individual’s transgressions, the vampire was now used to explore elements of larger social environments.

As the majority of early nineteenth-century vampire literature was written by English authors, it explored English class and family structures. The earliest literary vampires were intimate friends or acquaintances who threatened "the sanctioned distance of class relationships and the hallowed authority of husbands and fathers" (Auerbach, p. 6). Characters like Polidori’s Lord Ruthven and Le Fanu’s Carmilla symbolized the tension between classes. According to scholar Valdine Clemens, this behavior corresponds with the "perceived weakening of the [English] social fabric" that was occurring during the period (Clemens, p. 5). These vampires had a tremendous impact on society not because they were real, but because they offered a frightening glimpse of the reality of cultural instability.

As the nineteenth century progressed, the alarm caused by this type of uncertainty seemed to become less of a social concern. Scholars hypothesize that this readjustment occurred because Gothic literary themes have a tendency to weaken over time (Clemens, p. 6). As the consumer becomes more aware of and accustomed to the fearful experience, it is no longer as frightening. In the face of these alterations, the vampire changed once more. Bram Stoker’s novel, Dracula, mirrored the adjustments taking place in the collective minds of the English at the turn of the twentieth century. Instead of appearing in the visage of a family friend, Dracula exemplified the threat of the unknown (Halberstam, p. 4). Some scholars believe that this return to a more traditional approach to the vampire archetype occurred in response to the "acceleration" of the fields of science and technology that were occurring at the end of the century (Clemens, p. 153).

Dracula left a lasting impression that typified the genre for several decades, even surviving numerous changes that occurred during the first half of the twentieth century. With the advent and overwhelming popularity of American motion pictures, the point of origin of vampire media shifted. Countries like Romania and the United Kingdom were no longer the strongest source of interest in the vampire. In the twentieth century, the United States became the vampire capital of the world.

Bram Stoker’s creature survived the transfer to the United States quite well. While many screen villains fell victim to American cinematic trends, Dracula managed to stand the test of time (Auerbach, p. 112). One scholar contends that this is because Dracula "[represents] the American fixation on youth" (Wolf, p. 3). This is probably partially the case; however, it is far more likely that the character’s adaptability is the reason why it has survived in America for so long.

Bela Lugosi’s interpretation of Dracula in the 1931 film of the same name represented the first time that the fear of the "notably foreign" was applied to an American adaptation of this piece (Auerbach, p. 112). The decision to cast Lugosi as the central character of the tale was vital. His speech, mannerisms and dress all identified the Count as a profoundly alien entity. In some ways, these features were as effective in making Lugosi appear like a creature from another species as Max Schreck’s elongated fingers and rodent-like teeth did in Murnau’s Nosferatu of 1922 (Auerbach, p. 113).

Later adaptations featured versions of Dracula that met the cultural needs and expectations of the time. For example, the 1992 rendition of Stoker’s classic novel reflected the "Hollywoodization" of many films of the period. In this tale, Dracula becomes a misunderstood, tortured romantic figure. The novel is entangled with an historically inaccurate interpretation of the life of the Romanian political figure Vlad Dracula. In the confines of this film, Dracula spends his time hunting for the reincarnated form of his long dead wife. He does so with a mindless intensity, heedless of the destruction that he leaves in his wake. However, the audience forgives him because they deem his quest worthy. This Dracula becomes the Hollywood version of the romantic model of the vampire that permeated much of the modern era. It is not a mindless killing machine. Instead the vampire is a fractured, emotionally fragile creature who is all too easily destroyed.

The small changes in the genre that began with the 1931 adaptation of Dracula became more powerful and more significant during the 1970s. Beginning early in the decade, the narrative structure of vampire media shifted. Prior to the 1970s, the genre had consisted chiefly of an external narrative structure (Gordon & Hollinger, p. 2). This meant that narration occurred outside of the creature these tales were about. The vampires’ internal workings were left almost completely unknown, which made them feel less human. The internalized structure that began to be developed in 1970s vampire media established a closer connection between the audience and the creatures. In works like Anne Rice’s The Vampire Chronicles, the vampire became far more human. It displayed thoughts, feelings, fears, hope, dreams and infinite sadness. These vampires allowed people to feel the alienation that these creatures had experienced for centuries.

In addition to changes in the structural quality of the genre, other facets were modified as well. Beginning with Anne Rice’s novel Interview with the Vampire in 1976, elements of homoeroticism began to appear in vampire novels, movies, music and television. This is not to say that themes of this nature had not previously appeared in vampire media. However, the degree and quality of inclusion were unique.

Besides the genre’s relationship with sexuality, concepts of gender were also modified. Prior to the mid-1970s, women were almost strictly confined to the role of victim in mainstream vampire media. The Hammer films of the late 1960s and early 1970s were particularly famous for plunging ineffectual women into peril until their male counterparts could rescue them from Dracula or other equally threatening male vampires.

Over the last twenty-five years, these gender expectations have changed a great deal. Vampires now appear in the guise of both men and women. And, as in the case of Jewelle Gomez’s The Gilda Stories, women sometimes become the most powerful vampires. Furthermore, through characters like Buffy Summers, the title character of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, women now destroy the very creatures that had hunted them in previous decades.

Other changes include the addition of scientific and psychological theories to the genre. Through these themes, vampires became more complex than they had ever been before. Vampires were no longer simply an evil, supernatural force. They began to display biological and psychological motivations for their actions. And, even more disturbing, vampires also exhibited signs of human emotions.

Scientific theory only added to the tumult. Vampires of the late seventies, eighties and nineties began to be identified as diseased. There were numerous scientific rationalizations behind their appearance, ranging from rare genetic disorders to sicknesses of the blood and psychological hallucinations. In later years, television shows like The X-Files and novels like The Vampire Tapestry advanced the notion that vampires were the next step in human evolution.

Several facets of American cultural identity have contributed to the alterations in the makeup of vampire media that have been witnessed in the last twenty-five years. These elements include: secularization in American culture, American fascination with psychoanalysis and self-help, and American gender and sexual politics. While each of these factors has endowed the genre with smaller, more specific elements of lore, it is their combined impact that has established a new sense of the vampire archetype in the modern era. As the American culture continues to grow and change, the vampire will continue to mirror the development of the human species.