Chapter 1: Secularization in American Culture

Several factors have contributed to the alteration of the vampire genre over the last twenty-five years. One of the most important elements has been American culture’s relationship with religion. Traditionally, vampire lore has been intimately connected with religious mores. In recent years, the vampire has come to reflect America’s complex association with these principles.

Some scholars of the genre insist that the bond between the vampire and religion has been abolished in "a secular, technological culture nearly devoid of spiritualism" (Heldreth & Pharr, p. 60). It is their opinion that an utter lack of religious beliefs has caused the vampire to change in modern media. They speculate that the appearance and inclusion of scientific themes within the genre proves that the religious connection with the vampire is dead. This is not the case. While it is true that organized religion does not have the same stranglehold on Americans that it has had on the people of other cultures in the past, there is no reason to contend that American culture or American vampires are "devoid of spiritualism" (Heldreth & Pharr, p. 60). In fact, it appears that the opposite is true.

Historically, vampirism was most often associated with those who had sinned. Individuals who had committed suicide or who had led an immoral life were strongly suspect (Bunson, p. 20). Until 1823, English law required that all bodies of suicides must be staked before burial to ensure that the victim would not rise from the grave (Florescu & McNally, p. 121). Likewise, individuals who had been excommunicated or who had committed other mortal sins, like murder, were believed to have the ability to turn into vampires (Wright, p. 20).

In some cultures, it was conjectured that the condition of the soul could cause an individual to become a vampire. In Romania, for example, the preservation and satisfaction of the soul was deemed to be of the utmost importance (Klingman, p. 170). Romanians believe that without careful attention, the soul can become lost, unable to find its way to heaven. If this were to occur, the soul would be forced to exist on the earthly plane, eventually becoming a vampire (Klingman, p. 171). In response to this structure of spiritual beliefs, Romanians developed a rich ritualistic life that they believed would enable them to avoid becoming vampires. In other cultures, similar beliefs were held. For example, many people throughout Europe believed that the souls of the excommunicated could not enter heaven (Bunson, p. 88). In these instances, individuals were also assumed to have become vampires.

In response to these precepts, people aligned vampires and vampirism with evil. The argument became a simple battle between God and the devil. These concepts found a foothold and support in the Catholic Church, which used people’s fears to gather more believers into congregations (Wright, p. 21). While the Church initially rejected the belief in vampires because it did not correspond to religious doctrine that stated that the soul immediately goes to heaven upon death, this soon changed (Wright, p. 22). As it became apparent that people were unwilling to believe that vampires could not exist, the Church’s stance on this issue weakened. The clergy began providing religious relics like crosses and holy water to individuals who attended Mass, insisting that the items would protect them from harm (Klingman, p. 3). They also introduced the concept that burial on consecrated ground could prevent an individual from becoming a vampire (Klingman, p. 3). Not only did these actions bring more people to the Church, they also strengthened the association between the vampire and sinful behavior.

This inverse affinity between vampires and organized religion flourished throughout the Victorian era. It is likely that this was due in large part to the Victorian concept of self, which mirrored beliefs held in Romania and other cultures. Victorians believed that the self consisted of " a body which enveloped . . . [or] indeed, enthralled . . . its soul" (Halberstam, p. 2). As such, though the vampire had become a fictional entity, the threat inspired by these creatures was still plausible. Given this, it is not surprising that the vampire was such a powerful figure throughout the era. The religious alliance that had been formed between the vampire and the Church in other cultures in previous centuries prospered in this environment.

When the vampire genre first appeared in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century, it retained many of its traditional spiritual connections. Elements like the cross and holy water were still powerful parts of vampire lore. This association prospered for several decades. However, in the midst of the 1980s, this began to change. In that decade, vampires began to explore realms of reality that they had never entered. In novels like The Vampire Tapestry, they became not only creatures of spirituality, but of science as well. It was this adaptation of vampire lore that inspired many scholars to insist that the bond between the vampire and religion has been abolished.

In the decade prior to the new millennium, the spiritual climate of the United States changed dramatically. A surge in interest in spirituality occurred in the form of alternative medicine, naturalism, shamanism and wiccan religions, to name only a few. Likewise, a renewed interest in more traditional spiritual paths occurred as well. The Catholic Church became increasingly more vocal in the last year of the twentieth century, going so far as to ask for forgiveness for the many sins it had perpetrated over the course of the previous two thousand years (Karon).

This alteration in the basic character of American religious life is supported by many religious scholars, who believe that it is not the scope but the breadth of American religious beliefs that has changed (Broadway). In the past, the American culture had been dominated by the most prominent and familiar religions such as Catholicism, Protestantism and Judaism. However, Diana L. Eck, professor of comparative religion at Harvard University, believes that American culture has experienced an "interfaith explosion" in the last ten years (Broadway). Americans are no longer strictly defined by traditional religious boundaries. Instead they often experience spirituality in a more diverse way. The Church, Mass and organized religion may or may not play a role in this new form of spirituality.

The new American relationship with spirituality altered the religious connection with the vampire genre. A recent interview with Father Gregory Coiro supports this contention. He believes that "there could be a variety of reasons why vampires and vampirism [are] popular right now" (The Blood Tide). Father Coiro contends that the approach of the new millennium and the religious or spiritual surge that always accompanies this type of event has had tremendous influence over the popularity of the genre (The Blood Tide). Even in a culture where traditional religious canon may not have an overwhelming cultural influence, people are fascinated by "things having to do with the ultimate, final battle between good and evil" (The Blood Tide).

The modern American vampire certainly has not lost its connection with religion, spirituality or God. Truly, as Anne Rice’s vampires exemplify particularly well, the vampires’ struggle with God and their place in the order of life is an integral part of what these creatures have become. In the novel Interview With the Vampire, the title character, Louis de Point du Lac, spends a great deal of time reflecting on his vampiric nature. He labors with the concept of God, not understanding how vampires could be allowed to exist if such a creature were real. In one truly low point, he reasons that

if God doesn’t exist, [vampires] are the creatures of the highest consciousness in the universe. [They] alone understand the passage of time and the value of every minute of human life. And what constitutes evil, real evil, is the taking of a single human life. Whether a man would have died tomorrow or the day after or eventually . . . it doesn’t matter. Because if God does not exist, this life . . . every second of it . . . is all we have. (Interview, p. 238)

Here, in the face of a culture "devoid of spiritualism," we find a vampire quite devout in his spiritual beliefs. True, he may not be Catholic or Buddhist or Jewish, but he is spiritual and therein lies an important difference. The vampire in the modern era has established a unique relationship with religion and spirituality. Instead of being hunted and condemned by it, some vampires are now acting in the role of aggressor. They are searching within themselves and within the culture around them for some level of understanding of God. In the modern era, the vampire has been used to illustrate spirituality in its many forms and thus reflects the religious identity of modern American culture.

As we have seen, in the latter part of the twentieth century, American culture has stepped away from the major organized religions in favor of a broader, more amorphous concept of spirituality. As this cultural shift has occurred, the demonic model of the vampire that was established hundreds of years ago and that was glorified in Bram Stoker’s Dracula is no longer effectual (Gordon & Hollinger, p. 30).

The vampire in the modern era has become far more complex than it has ever been before. As the reliance on the religious connection with vampire lore eased, other elements made their way into the genre. Perhaps the most significant of these new aspects was the inclusion of scientific themes, many of which existed in direct conflict with religious sensibilities. As such, they had not appeared in vampire media prior to this point. While medical conditions had been associated with the historic vampire, the demonic model favored in the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century required a more traditional spiritual source.

Prior to the establishment of the religious connection with the vampire, another important bond was forged. Medical conditions, like death in childbirth, were often blamed on or associated with vampirism (Gordon & Hollinger, p. 47). Moreover, individuals with diseases like anemia and, more rarely, porphyria, a deficiency of a vital enzyme of the blood, were believed to be vampires (Bunson, p. 7, 200, 210). In recent years, this connection has been reestablished in modern vampire media.

With the approach of the new millennium, the American public became fascinated by the interconnections of science, spirituality and the supernatural. In part, science has been used to explain the origins of superstition. Medical science, for example, has illuminated the connection between the historical interpretation of the natural processes of decomposition and the belief in vampires that existed throughout Europe in previous centuries. At the same time, science and spirituality have also been used to enrich the realm of supernatural plausibility. On television series like The X-Files, the American public has been introduced to scientific and spiritual theories that support some of the wildest of human imaginings.

Within vampire media, the modern sciences have offered several feasible explanations for the existence of vampires. In many cases, the vampires have once more become associated with disease. Several vampire films, like Blade and Bram Stoker’s Dracula, have established vampirism as a disorder of the blood (Grant, p.395). This connection is not astounding given the devastation that AIDS has caused in recent decades. Several scholars contend that only Anne Rice’s vampires have managed to avoid this new trend (Auerbach, p. 175; Gordon & Hollinger, p. 219). Their "[portrayal of an] alternate, supernaturalized sexuality that survives a world of death" is what makes them so powerful. (Auerbach, p. 218). They alone are capable of surviving a disease that continues to kill millions.

Not only may vampires be diseased, but in some cases they may be an entirely new species. Many artists in the modern vampire genre have embraced and utilized Darwin’s theories of evolution in their artistic creations. In Suzy McKee Charnas’s groundbreaking novel, The Vampire Tapestry, her vampire is the result of a genetic mutation. He is the only creature of his kind and the author uses well-established animal behavioral patterns, like hibernation, to explain his behavior. Similar storylines were explored on The X-Files, where the question was raised, what if there was another branch on the ape’s evolutionary tree that we never knew about? This theme has also been explored throughout the broader genre of science fiction.

These relatively new additions have established many layers within the vampire genre. For example, as Stephen King hypothesizes in his novel Salem’s Lot, do crosses and holy water suddenly stop working when we lose faith in organized religion? What about silver, garlic and sunlight? Are the reactions caused by these substances simple allergies? If so, would a few antihistamines get rid of the symptoms entirely? And, on a grander scale, as we broaden the scope of possibility, what else exists beyond our current realm of understanding?

America’s relationship with religion and spirituality has not vanished. In reality, it has become deeper and more complex in recent years than it has ever been before. This connection was boosted by the approach of the millennium. As many scholars have confirmed, interest in greater spiritual and religious questions always accompanies this type of event (The Blood Ties, Broadway). While it is true that American spirituality is no longer exclusively tied with organized religion, it is instead the depth and breadth of this important facet of American culture that have helped to create many exhilarating changes in the vampire genre over the last few decades. With the inclusion of the internal narrative structure seen in novels like Anne Rice’s Interview With the Vampire, and scientific elements like disease and evolution documented in television series like The X-Files, the vampire has become more reflective of the social fears and questions of the modern era. Americans are no longer satisfied with the simple religious argument of good versus evil. They demand more and the modern American vampire has come to reflect these needs.